Europe: Market access and barriers to trade

In this section, we examine tariff and non-tariff barriers within Europe and particularly in the EU. The EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement allows tariff-free trade in goods between the EU and UK. After the UK left the EU, however, non-tariff barriers were created, leading to increased trade friction. Recent negotiations seek to alleviate this friction.

The EU acts as a single market, with prohibitively high tariff barriers to non-members wishing to export to the region (Table 1).  

The only exceptions are where Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) have been negotiated or where tariff-rate quotas (TRQs) exist for countries to export to the EU.  

Table 1. EU tariff rates  

*Tariffs are most-favoured-nation (MFN) rates in accordance with World Trade Organization (WTO) guidelines 

Source: European Commission 

International trade depends on tariffs and non-tariff measures. Market access depends on meeting the agreed import requirements of the importing country. These are reflected in export health certificates (EHCs) which accompany consignments and are required by the importing nation.  

The UK has EHCs in place for exporting red meat and dairy products to the EU.

However, from 1 January 2021, chilled minced red meat and chilled meat preparations, such as raw sausages, were banned from being exported into the EU. The UK is the only country in Europe that makes and exports raw sausages and has been unable to export this product, along with minced meat to the EU since 1 January 2021. 

Following the UK–EU trade summit in May 2025, EHCs will no longer be required for shipping red meat and dairy products from the UK to the EU.

Also, the UK will be able to export chilled minced red meat and chilled meat preparations to the EU. At the time of writing, information on the timings of these changes had not been announced but will undoubtedly help UK red meat and dairy exports to the EU. 

Looking beyond the EU, the UK has EHCs in place to export red meat and dairy to Switzerland. There are EHCs in place to export red meat and dairy products to Ukraine, but at the time of writing, the EHC for shipping pork to Ukraine was “on hold” (Table 2).

The UK is negotiating an enhanced free trade deal with Switzerland, and AHDB has carried out in-depth analysis to examine the effects on UK agriculture. 

Table 2. Export health certificate (EHC) information for Switzerland and Ukraine 

 
Source: GOV.UK 

Table 3. Tariff rates for selected red meat and dairy imports into Switzerland and Ukraine 

CHF = Swiss Francs 
NB. Dry weight 

*Tariffs are most-favoured-nation (MFN) rates in accordance with World Trade Organization (WTO) guidelines 

Source: World Trade Organization Tariff Database 

Tariffs on red meat and dairy imports into Switzerland and Ukraine can add considerable cost, and so any negotiations to reduce or remove these would be a welcome move for UK exports. 

Non-tariff barriers on trade with EU 

Although the UK has an FTA with the EU that enables tariff-free access for agricultural exports, it is still subject to a range of non-tariff measures (NTMs) since its departure from the single market.  

NTMs add cost and time for exporters, and they are often referred to as ‘trade friction’ (a force that hinders or slows free movement of goods). However, plans to remove these barriers were discussed at the UK–EU trade summit in May 2025. 

NTMs vary according to the product traded, but they are especially significant for exports of plant or animal origin.  

Currently, any exports which are products of animal origin require a number of export supportive documentation.  

These include:  

• Vet Attestation Numbers or suitable farm assurance 

• EHCs, labelling requirements, including stated country of origin  

• Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) requirements, as well as physical checks at the border to ensure compliance  

AHDB analysis estimated that these NTMs add, on average, 5–8% in costs for livestock products and 2–5% for plant-based exports.  

The cost per load varies depending on specific requirements and whether the load is subject to a physical check, but data shows many smaller traders have been deterred from exporting to the EU since the UK exited the EU due to the disproportionate cost and the inability to spread that cost over a large load. 

An example of this is the so-called groupage effect. Previously, individual pallets from small exporters could be grouped into one load for transportation to reduce costs. However, the risk of one pallet being non-compliant ‒ which could result in the whole truckload being rejected ‒ means this is too high-risk for small exporters. 

The Border Operating Model ‒ which subjects EU animal products, plants and plant product imports into Great Britain to reciprocal controls and inspections ‒ was introduced in January 2024 and was phased in by April 2024. Prior to this there was a period in which EU products could enter the UK without the same level of SPS checks as similar products leaving the UK.  

As revealed at the UK‒EU summit held in May 2025, the UK and EU have agreed to establish a UK‒EU sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) zone which will remove paperwork (such as EHCs and routine border checks) plus allow previously banned exports of certain types of fresh British meat to the EU (as mentioned earlier). These changes will make exporting from the UK to EU easier, less time consuming and less costly. 

Moving forward, there are several areas to watch that could impact the UK’s ability to trade with the EU.  

The EU deforestation regulation (EUDR) will require states exporting to the EU to prove that certain products have not been responsible for any deforestation. These include cattle (beef), wood, cocoa, soy, palm oil, coffee, rubber and some of their derived products, such as leather, chocolate, tyres or furniture. The UK government is yet to nominate a reporting authority that will be acceptable to the EU.  

Furthermore, any divergence from EU policy that could come from various precision breeding regulations across the devolved nations has the potential to provide extra barriers to trade in terms of certification and labelling requirements imposed by either party. This will be important to monitor for all sectors as both the science and regulation advances. 

Other EU trading relationships that may affect the UK’s opportunity in the region 

EU-Mercosur 

This agreement between the EU and the Southern Common Market, commonly known as Mercosur (including Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay), is in the process of being ratified by all EU member states.  

This agreement has the potential to limit UK opportunity in the region, because many of these South American countries are known for their enormous scale of agricultural production.  

As a result of this deal, it follows that the EU would see greater agricultural imports from the region. However, these imports will be subject to tariff-rate quotas (TRQs) and all imports to the EU must comply with EU food safety and environmental standards (including the EUDR).  

Meanwhile, beef production in some Mercosur countries continues to use growth-promoting hormones (banned in the EU), and these countries have links to deforestation. 

EU–Canada 

The EU–Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA) is a progressive trade agreement between the EU and Canada. It entered into force provisionally in 2017, meaning that most of the agreement now applies.  

The agreement eliminates almost all tariffs on industrial goods and services over a seven-year transition period. The agri-food sector has been more protected, with only limited market access granted for certain products in the form of TRQs.  

The EU will increase the TRQ for low and medium-quality wheat (from 38,853 to 100,000 tonnes), beef (from 7,640 to 45,840 tonnes over a six-year period) and pork (from 12,500 to 75,000 tonnes within a six-year period). Once again, the SPS measures will prevent Canadian beef or pork treated with growth promoters from entering the EU market. 

EU–New Zealand 

The trade agreement between the European Union and New Zealand entered into force on 1 May 2024, with agreed TRQs to be phased in over the subsequent seven years. This has the potential to impact key UK exports to the EU, including beef, sheep meat and dairy. 

EU–Ukraine 

The European Union and Ukraine have been linked through an Association Agreement (AA) since 2014, and a Deep and Comprehensive Trade Partnership Agreement (DCTP) provisionally applied since 2016; the DCTP has been accelerated through the implementation of the Priority Action Plan since 2023. Currently, Ukraine is the third-biggest supplier of agri-food imports to the EU, comprising mainly cereals, animal or vegetable fats, and oils and oilseeds.  

After the Russian invasion of Ukraine, import duties and quotas on Ukrainian agricultural products have been suspended until 5 June 2025 to provide economic stability to Ukraine while the war continues.  

This trade support previously had the knock-on impact of weighing on local grain prices, leading to discontent from some farmers in Poland and Hungary.  

Therefore in 2024 a new regulation was introduced whereby the European Commission can impose any measures such as tariffs if there is significant disruption to the EU market or to the markets of one or more EU member states due to Ukrainian imports (e.g. wheat).  

The Commission can trigger an emergency brake for particularly sensitive agricultural products, namely poultry, eggs, sugar, oats, groats, maize and honey. Currently, the emergency brake has been activated for oats, eggs, sugar, groats and honey. 

As the war continues, it will be important to monitor how the Ukrainian–European trading relationships develop, as they have the potential to fundamentally impact the global cereal and oilseed markets. 

EU–Australia 

The EU is currently negotiating a trade deal with Australia. The EU has previously stated that full agricultural trade liberalisation is off the table.  

US trade policy 

Although there is no FTA between the EU and the USA, trade policy under the second Trump administration is likely to remain a key watch-point.  

At the time of writing, the USA has imposed, postponed and re-introduced tariffs at various levels on EU imports (as well as those from a raft of countries around the world).  

The consequences of these tariff levels will not just be felt by countries on which they are imposed but on trade networks. The UK is likely to experience indirect effects as the EU is its largest trading partner. 

Wider Europe  

EFTA  

Outside the European Union, the UK has trading relationships with the EFTA states (Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Switzerland). These relationships are in the form of FTAs: one encompasses Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein, and there is a separate agreement with Switzerland. There is very limited UK agricultural trade with these individual states due to their high level of integration with the EU.